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	<title>Wikisofia - Příspěvky uživatele [cs]</title>
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	<updated>2026-05-15T11:14:26Z</updated>
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	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Sound_Change&amp;diff=19304</id>
		<title>Sound Change</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Sound_Change&amp;diff=19304"/>
		<updated>2015-04-29T07:50:18Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Anna.Hupcejova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''1. Explain the so‐called regularity principle (“Neogrammarian hypothesis”).  '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-the Neogrammarians (beginning in about 1876, Germany)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- a group of younger scholars who antagonised the leaders of the field at that time by attacking older thinking and loudly proclaiming their own views  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the early Neogrammarians included Karl Brugmann, Berthold Delbriick, August Leskien, Hermann Osthoff, Hermann Paul etc.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-their slogan: sound laws suffer no exceptions → the assumption that sound chage is regular = the change takes place whenever the sound or sounds which undergo the change are found in the circumstances or environments that condition the change   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. In Spanish, p-&amp;gt;b when intervocalic (no exceptions - sound change is not arbitrary)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the regular sound changes are of high significance in historical linguistics - they are extremely important to the methods and theories about language change&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''2. Explain the difference between the following sound changes:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Sporadic / Regular'''''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Sporadic = affects only a few words, not the entire language; the change is unpredictable. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. OE spræc =&amp;gt; PDE speech. Loss of r is not general – spring, spree etc. retain it&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Regular = apply throughout language; are predictable&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. In Spanish, p changes into b when intervocalic&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Conditioned/Unconditioned'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conditioned sound change = dependent on certain contexts and affects only some of the sound’s occurrences. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. In Spanish, p changes into b when intervocalic&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Unconditioned sound change = occurs generally and is not dependent on the phonetic context or restricted by neighbouring sounds&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. P at the beginning of words = p.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Phonemic/phonological and Non‐phonemic/phonetic'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Non-phonemic (allophonic change) do not alter the total number of phonemes in the language =&amp;gt; non-phonemic shift = change in pronunciation (phonetic level), but no changes in phonemic level.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Phonemic = change the structural organization of the inventory of sounds – adds/deletes phonemes/basic sounds in the langauge&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''4. Explain the following concepts:'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Assimilation'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- one sound becomes more similar to another --&amp;gt; the influence of a neighbouring, usually adjacent, sound&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- dichotomies: total-partial, contact-distant, regressive-progressive&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- total  - the soundbecomes identical to another by taking on all of its phonetic features&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- partial - the assimilating sound acquires some traits of another, but does not become fully identical to it&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-regressive - the sound that undergoes the change comes earlier in the word (more to the left) than the sound which causes or conditions the assimilation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- progressive - affects the sounds which come later in the word than the conditioning environment&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
contact - the sounds are immediately adjacent&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
distant - non-adjacent&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
a) total contact regressive assimilation: Latin octo &amp;gt; Italian otto (eight), noctem &amp;gt; notte (night)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
b) total contact progressive assimilation: PIE *kolnis &amp;gt; Latin collis (hill); PG *hulnis &amp;gt; OE hyll &amp;gt; ModE hill; OE myln &amp;gt; ModE mill&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
c) partial contact regressive assimilation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
d) partial contact progressive assimilation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
e) distant assimilation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Chain shift'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- interconnected changes with far-reaching impact on the overall phonological system of the language&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- often attributed to notions such as &amp;quot;symmetry in phonemic inventories&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;naturalness&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;markedness&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;maximum differentiation&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;a tendency for holes in phonological patterns to be filled&amp;quot;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the general idea: sound systems tend to be symmetrical or natural, and those that are not (with gaps in the inventory(, tend to change to make them symmetrical or natural (to fill the gap) --&amp;gt; a change which fills one gap may create other gaps elsewhere in the system -&amp;gt; other changes towards symmetry&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- 2 types: pull chains x push chains&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- a pull chain: one change may create a hole in the phonemic pattern which is followed by another change which fills the hole by &amp;quot;pulling&amp;quot; some sounds from somewhere else in the system and changing that sound to fit the needs of symmetry --&amp;gt; the sound which shifted to fill the original hole in the patterns leaves a new hole elsewhere in the pattern --&amp;gt; some other change may &amp;quot;pull&amp;quot; some other sounds to fill that gap&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- a push chain: notion that languages (or their speakers) want to maintain difference between sounds in the system in order to facilitate understanding, the processing of what is heard. A sound starts changing by moving into the articulatory space of another sounds --&amp;gt; change where the sound moves away from the encroaching one in order to maintain distinctions important to meaning --&amp;gt; if the sound is pushed towards articulatory space of some other sound, then it may shift to avoid the encroachment&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Apocope (tata &amp;gt; tat)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- loss of a sound, usually a vowel, at the end of a word&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- OE vs PDE nouns sticca&amp;gt; stick, sunu &amp;gt; son, mona &amp;gt; moon&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Syncope (atata &amp;gt; atta)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the loss of a vowel from interior of a word&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- in many varieties of English = fam(i)ly, mem(o)ry&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Vulgar Latin &amp;gt; Western Romance languages = the unstressed vowels other than a lost in the interior of words three syllables long or longer (pópulu &amp;gt; poplV-, French peuple, English people)&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Anna.Hupcejova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Sound_Change&amp;diff=19265</id>
		<title>Sound Change</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Sound_Change&amp;diff=19265"/>
		<updated>2015-04-28T10:18:11Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Anna.Hupcejova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''2. Explain the difference between the following sound changes:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Sporandic / Regular'''''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Sporandic = affects only a few words, not the entire language; the change is unpredictable. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. OE spræc =&amp;gt; PDE speech. Loss of r is not general – spring, spree etc. retain it&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Regular = apply throughout language; are predictable&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. In Spanish, p changes into b when intervocalic&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Conditioned/Unconditioned'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conditioned sound change = dependent on certain contexts and affects only some of the sound’s occurrences. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. In Spanish, p changes into b when intervocalic&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Unconditioned sound change = occurs generally and is not dependent on the phonetic context or restricted by neighbouring sounds&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. P at the beginning of words = p.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Phonemic/phonological and Non‐phonemic/phonetic'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Non-phonemic (allophonic change) do not alter the total number of phonemes in the language =&amp;gt; non-phonemic shift = change in pronunciation (phonetic level), but no changes in phonemic level.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Phonemic = change the structural organization of the inventory of sounds – adds/deletes phonemes/basic sounds in the langauge&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Anna.Hupcejova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Sound_Change&amp;diff=19255</id>
		<title>Sound Change</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Sound_Change&amp;diff=19255"/>
		<updated>2015-04-27T15:27:50Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Anna.Hupcejova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''3. Explain the difference between the following sound changes:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Sporandic / Regular'''''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Sporandic = affects only a few words, not the entire language; the change is unpredictable. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. OE spræc =&amp;gt; PDE speech. Loss of r is not general – spring, spree etc. retain it&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Regular = apply throughout language; are predictable&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. In Spanish, p changes into b when intervocalic&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Conditioned/Unconditioned'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conditioned sound change = dependent on certain contexts and affects only some of the sound’s occurrences. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. In Spanish, p changes into b when intervocalic&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Unconditioned sound change = occurs generally and is not dependent on the phonetic context or restricted by neighbouring sounds&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. P at the beginning of words = p.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Phonemic/phonological and Non‐phonemic/phonetic'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Non-phonemic (allophonic change) do not alter the total number of phonemes in the language =&amp;gt; non-phonemic shift = change in pronunciation (phonetic level), but no changes in phonemic level.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Phonemic = change the structural organization of the inventory of sounds – adds/deletes phonemes/basic sounds in the langauge&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Anna.Hupcejova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Sound_Change&amp;diff=19254</id>
		<title>Sound Change</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Sound_Change&amp;diff=19254"/>
		<updated>2015-04-27T12:44:58Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Anna.Hupcejova: Založena nová stránka s textem „'''3. Explain the difference between the following sound changes:  '''1.	Sporandic / Regular'''''  Sporandic = affects only a few words, not the entire lan…“&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''3. Explain the difference between the following sound changes:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''1.	Sporandic / Regular'''''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Sporandic = affects only a few words, not the entire language; the change is unpredictable. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. OE spræc =&amp;gt; PDE speech. Loss of r is not general – spring, spree etc. retain it&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Regular = apply throughout language; are predictable&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. In Spanish, p changes into b when intervocalic&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''2.	Conditioned/Unconditioned'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conditioned sound change = dependent on certain contexts and affects only some of the sound’s occurrences. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. In Spanish, p changes into b when intervocalic&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Unconditioned sound change = occurs generally and is not dependent on the phonetic context or restricted by neighbouring sounds&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. P at the beginning of words = p.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''3.	Phonemic/phonological and Non‐phonemic/phonetic'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Non-phonemic (allophonic change) do not alter the total number of phonemes in the language =&amp;gt; non-phonemic shift = change in pronunciation (phonetic level), but no changes in phonemic level.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Phonemic = change the structural organization of the inventory of sounds – adds/deletes phonemes/basic sounds in the langauge&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Anna.Hupcejova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_The_Viking_invasions_and_their_consequences&amp;diff=7862</id>
		<title>Old English: The Viking invasions and their consequences</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_The_Viking_invasions_and_their_consequences&amp;diff=7862"/>
		<updated>2014-11-10T12:30:04Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Anna.Hupcejova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''1.	Characterize the nature of Viking raids and Viking settlement in England.'''&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, p. 46-52&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Viking raids (787+)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Reasons for the Vikings leaving their home:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- over-population&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- too few natural resources&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- primogeniture system&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Nature of the raids = similar like the Anglo-Saxons'&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- pillaging and burning of the coast + returning home with gold, silver, slaves etc.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Monasteries sacked and manuscripts destroyed in Lindisfarne, Jarrow and Iona (793-795)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Viking settlement (850+)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Less raids, more settling - Danish Vikings in large parts of North and East England, Norwegian Vikings in Western Scotland + parts of Ireland =&amp;gt; farms established =&amp;gt; territorial conflict between inhabitants + newcomers, BUT no forced removal of Celts as the Anglo-Saxons have done&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	West Saxon kings undertook defense against the Danes, ex. Æthelwulf (recorded as a descendant of Seth, the son of biblical Adam) in 854 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Æthelwulf’s son Alfred the Great of Wessex (initiator of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'') stopped the advance of Danish Vikings at battle of Edington in 878&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Peace under Treaty of Wedmore:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1)	Stable boundary set between kingdom of Wessex and Danelaw (Northumbria, East Mercia &amp;amp; East Anglia)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2)	The defeated Danish king of East Anglia Guthrum became Christian  (= step towards assimilation of Viking conquerors)&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
•	Æthelstan (Alfred’s grandson) helped the West Saxons reconquer territories in Danelaw and then in whole England &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Settlements of Danes and Anglo-Saxons = relative proximity, similar ways of life, bilingualism&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Eventual renewed attacks by the Danes =&amp;gt; establishment of Danish king over all England: Sweyn Forkbeard &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Æthelstan put into exile&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- His son Cnut (= king of Denmark and Norway) ended Danish raids, though not Danish claims to the throne&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Official language at court: English, x Danish&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Compare OE borrowings from Latin and ON. '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Latin borrowings = mainly religious (''bishop, Saturday etc'') &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Borrowings/loan words from ON  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	War + maritime: ''ransaka'' “ransack”, ''dreng ''“warrior”  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Legal + administration:'' laga'' “law”, ''hūsting'' “tribunal” &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Common verbs: ''get, want, call'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Bodily features: ''leg, freckles, skin'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Farm &amp;amp; animal terms:'' bull, egg, axletree'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Life: ''birth, slaughter, die'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Relations: ''sister, husband'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	BUT ex. ON ''taka'' “take” replaced OE ''niman'', but “nim” = “nimble” (= stealing in PDE) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Most loan words adopted in OE do not appear in writing until ME  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Reason: lack of a literary tradition in Danelaw&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''4. Summarize the main syntactic changes during this period.'''&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, p. 56&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* Mainly relative pronouns/particles&lt;br /&gt;
** Ϸe (that/who) used in OE for all antecedents regardless of case and number &lt;br /&gt;
** ON contributed to the use of relative particle ''as ''that came from Norse ''som''&lt;br /&gt;
*** As in ''the man as came yesterday'' (more common in northern English dialects)&lt;br /&gt;
** Zero relative appears&lt;br /&gt;
*** As in ''the man I [zero] saw yesterday'' &lt;br /&gt;
*** Was probably used even before the Viking invasions, but even though it is a rare construction it appears both in English and Danish, which is interesting &lt;br /&gt;
**** The languages also share “preposition stranding” &lt;br /&gt;
***** A construction where the preposition can be moved away from the relative &lt;br /&gt;
***** E.g. ''a construction in which the relative is fronted'' X ''a'' ''construction which the relative is fronted in''  &lt;br /&gt;
* Verb phrase &lt;br /&gt;
** In OE complex verb forms (such as the perfect, the progressive, the will-future, auxiliary do) were not common, but they are in ME &lt;br /&gt;
*** It is debatable how much was their appearance in ME influenced by ON &lt;br /&gt;
*** It might also be caused the disappearance of the West Saxon written standard under the Normans &lt;br /&gt;
*** In either case it is also possible that it was influenced by the vernacular during the absence of a unified language form (whether in Danelaw or Norman England)&lt;br /&gt;
'''References'''&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Anna.Hupcejova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_The_Viking_invasions_and_their_consequences&amp;diff=7861</id>
		<title>Old English: The Viking invasions and their consequences</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_The_Viking_invasions_and_their_consequences&amp;diff=7861"/>
		<updated>2014-11-10T12:25:23Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Anna.Hupcejova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''1.	Characterize the nature of Viking raids and Viking settlement in England.'''&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, p. 46-52&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Viking raids (787+)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Reasons for the Vikings leaving their home:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- over-population&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- too few natural resources&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- primogeniture system&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Nature of the raids = similar like the Anglo-Saxons&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Raiding, pillaging and burning the coast + returning home with gold, silver, slaves etc.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Monasteries sacked and manuscripts destroyed in Lindisfarne, Jarrow and Iona (793-795)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Viking settlement (850+)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Less raids, more settling - Danish Vikings in large parts of North and East England, Norwegian Vikings in Western Scotland + parts of Ireland&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	They established farms in these areas =&amp;gt; territorial conflict between inhabitants + newcomers, BUT no forced removal of Celts as Anglo-Saxons have done&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	West Saxon kings undertook defence against the Danes, ex. Æthelwulf (recorded as a descendant of Seth, the son of biblical Adam) in 854 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Æthelwulf’s son Alfred the Great of Wessex (initiator of the A-S Chronicle) stopped the advance of Danish Vikings at battle of Edington in 878&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Peace under Treaty of Wedmore:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1)	Stable boundary set between kingdom of Wessex and Danelaw (Northumbria, East Mercia &amp;amp; East Anglia)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2)	The defeated Danish king of East Anglia Guthrum became Christian  (= step towards assimilation of Viking conquerors)&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
•	Æthelstan (Alfred’s grandson) helped the West Saxons reconquer territories in Danelaw and then whole England &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Settlements of Danes and Anglo-Saxons = relative proximity, similar ways of life, bilingualism&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Eventual renewed attacks by the Danes =&amp;gt; establishment of Danish king over all England: Sweyn Forkbeard &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Æthelstan put into exile&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- His son Cnut (= king of Denmark and Norway) ended Danish raids, though not Danish claims to the throne&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Official language at court: English, x Danish&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Compare OE borrowings from Latin and ON. '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Latin borrowings = mainly religious (bishop, Saturday etc) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Borrowings/loan words from ON  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	War + maritime: ransaka “ransack”, dreng “warrior”  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Legal + administration: laga “law”, hūsting “tribunal” &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Common verbs: get, want, call &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Bodily features: leg, freckles, skin &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Farm &amp;amp; animal terms: bull, egg, axletree &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Life: birth, slaughter, die &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Relations: sister, husband &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	BUT ex. ON taka “take” replaced OE “niman”, but “nim” = “nimble” &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Most loan words adopted in OE do not appear in writing until ME  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Reason: lack of a literary tradition in Danelaw&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''4. Summarize the main syntactic changes during this period.'''&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, p. 56&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* Mainly relative pronouns/particles&lt;br /&gt;
** Ϸe (that/who) used in OE for all antecedents regardless of case and number &lt;br /&gt;
** ON contributed to the use of relative particle ''as ''that came from Norse ''som''&lt;br /&gt;
*** As in ''the man as came yesterday'' (more common in northern English dialects)&lt;br /&gt;
** Zero relative appears&lt;br /&gt;
*** As in ''the man I [zero] saw yesterday'' &lt;br /&gt;
*** Was probably used even before the Viking invasions, but even though it is a rare construction it appears both in English and Danish, which is interesting &lt;br /&gt;
**** The languages also share “preposition stranding” &lt;br /&gt;
***** A construction where the preposition can be moved away from the relative &lt;br /&gt;
***** E.g. ''a construction in which the relative is fronted'' X ''a'' ''construction which the relative is fronted in''  &lt;br /&gt;
* Verb phrase &lt;br /&gt;
** In OE complex verb forms (such as the perfect, the progressive, the will-future, auxiliary do) were not common, but they are in ME &lt;br /&gt;
*** It is debatable how much was their appearance in ME influenced by ON &lt;br /&gt;
*** It might also be caused the disappearance of the West Saxon written standard under the Normans &lt;br /&gt;
*** In either case it is also possible that it was influenced by the vernacular during the absence of a unified language form (whether in Danelaw or Norman England)&lt;br /&gt;
'''References'''&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Anna.Hupcejova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_The_Viking_invasions_and_their_consequences&amp;diff=7704</id>
		<title>Old English: The Viking invasions and their consequences</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_The_Viking_invasions_and_their_consequences&amp;diff=7704"/>
		<updated>2014-11-07T21:50:27Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Anna.Hupcejova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''1.	Characterize the nature of Viking raids and Viking settlement in England.'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Viking raids (787+)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Reasons for the Vikings leaving their home:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- over-population&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- too few natural resources&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- primogeniture system&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Nature of the raids = similar like the Anglo-Saxons&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Raiding, pillaging and burning the coast + returning home with gold, silver, slaves etc.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Monasteries sacked and manuscripts destroyed in Lindisfarne, Jarrow and Iona (793-795)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Viking settlement (850+)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Less raids, more settling - Danish Vikings in large parts of North and East England, Norwegian Vikings in Western Scotland + parts of Ireland&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	They established farms in these areas =&amp;gt; territorial conflict between inhabitants + newcomers, BUT no forced removal of Celts as Anglo-Saxons have done&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	West Saxon kings undertook defence against the Danes, ex. Æthelwulf (recorded as a descendant of Seth, the son of biblical Adam) in 854 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Æthelwulf’s son Alfred the Great of Wessex (initiator of the A-S Chronicle) stopped the advance of Danish Vikings at battle of Edington in 878&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Peace under Treaty of Wedmore:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1)	Stable boundary set between kingdom of Wessex and Danelaw (Northumbria, East Mercia &amp;amp; East Anglia)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2)	The defeated Danish king of East Anglia Guthrum became Christian  (= step towards assimilation of Viking conquerors)&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
•	Æthelstan (Alfred’s grandson) helped the West Saxons reconquer territories in Danelaw and then whole England &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Settlements of Danes and Anglo-Saxons = relative proximity, similar ways of life, bilingualism&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Eventual renewed attacks by the Danes =&amp;gt; establishment of Danish king over all England: Sweyn Forkbeard &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Æthelstan put into exile&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- His son Cnut (= king of Denmark and Norway) ended Danish raids, though not Danish claims to the throne&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Official language at court: English, x Danish&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Compare OE borrowings from Latin and ON. '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Latin borrowings = mainly religious (bishop, Saturday etc) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Borrowings/loan words from ON  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	War + maritime: ransaka “ransack”, dreng “warrior”  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Legal + administration: laga “law”, hūsting “tribunal” &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Common verbs: get, want, call &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Bodily features: leg, freckles, skin &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Farm &amp;amp; animal terms: bull, egg, axletree &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Life: birth, slaughter, die &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Relations: sister, husband &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	BUT ex. ON taka “take” replaced OE “niman”, but “nim” = “nimble” &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Most loan words adopted in OE do not appear in writing until ME  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Reason: lack of a literary tradition in Danelaw&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Anna.Hupcejova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_The_Viking_invasions_and_their_consequences&amp;diff=7703</id>
		<title>Old English: The Viking invasions and their consequences</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_The_Viking_invasions_and_their_consequences&amp;diff=7703"/>
		<updated>2014-11-07T20:56:19Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Anna.Hupcejova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''1.	Characterize the nature of Viking raids and Viking settlement in England.'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Viking raids (787+)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Reasons for the Vikings leaving their home:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- over-population&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- too few natural resources&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- primogeniture system&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Nature of the raids = similar like the Anglo-Saxons&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Raiding, pillaging and burning the coast + returning home with gold, silver, slaves etc.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Monasteries sacked and manuscripts destroyed in Lindisfarne, Jarrow and Iona (793-795)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Viking settlement (850+)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Less raids, more settling - Danish Vikings in large parts of North and East England, Norwegian Vikings in Western Scotland + parts of Ireland&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	They established farms in these areas =&amp;gt; territorial conflict between inhabitants + newcomers, BUT no forced removal of Celts as Anglo-Saxons have done&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	West Saxon kings undertook defence against the Danes, ex. Æthelwulf (recorded as a descendant of Seth, the son of biblical Adam) in 854 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Æthelwulf’s son Alfred the Great of Wessex (initiator of the A-S Chronicle) stopped the advance of Danish Vikings at battle of Edington in 878&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Peace under Treaty of Wedmore:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1)	Stable boundary set between kingdom of Wessex and Danelaw (Northumbria, East Mercia &amp;amp; East Anglia)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2)	The defeated Danish king of East Anglia Guthrum became Christian  (= step towards assimilation of Viking conquerors)&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
•	Æthelstan (Alfred’s grandson) helped the West Saxons reconquer territories in Danelaw and then whole England &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Settlements of Danes and Anglo-Saxons = relative proximity, similar ways of life, bilingualism&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Eventual renewed attacks by the Danes =&amp;gt; establishment of Danish king over all England: Sweyn Forkbeard &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Æthelstan put into exile&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- His son Cnut (= king of Denmark and Norway) ended Danish raids, though not Danish claims to the throne&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Official language at court: English, x Danish&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Anna.Hupcejova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_The_Viking_invasions_and_their_consequences&amp;diff=7702</id>
		<title>Old English: The Viking invasions and their consequences</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_The_Viking_invasions_and_their_consequences&amp;diff=7702"/>
		<updated>2014-11-07T19:38:00Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Anna.Hupcejova: Založena nová stránka s textem „'''1.	Characterize the nature of Viking raids and Viking settlement in England.'''  '''Viking raids (787+)'''  •	Reasons for the Vikings leaving their ho…“&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''1.	Characterize the nature of Viking raids and Viking settlement in England.'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Viking raids (787+)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Reasons for the Vikings leaving their home:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- over-population&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- too few natural resources&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- primogeniture system&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Nature of the raids = similar like the Anglo-Saxons&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Raiding, pillaging and burning the coast + returning home with gold, silver, slaves etc.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Monasteries sacked and manuscripts destroyed in Lindisfarne, Jarrow and Iona (793-795)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Viking settlement (850+)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Less raids, more settling - Danish Vikings in large parts of North and East England, Norwegian Vikings in Western Scotland + parts of Ireland&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	They established farms in these areas =&amp;gt; territorial conflict between inhabitants + newcomers, BUT no forced removal of Celts as Anglo-Saxons have done&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	West Saxon kings undertook defence against the Danes, ex. Æthelwulf (recorded as a descendant of Seth, the son of biblical Adam) in 854 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Æthelwulf’s son Alfred the Great of Wessex (initiator of the A-S Chronicle) stopped the advance of Danish Vikings at battle of Edington in 878&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Peace under Treaty of Wedmore:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1)	Stable boundary set between kingdom of Wessex and Danelaw (Northumbria, East Mercia &amp;amp; East Anglia)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2)	The defeated Danish king of East Anglia Guthrum became Christian  (= step towards assimilation of Viking conquerors)&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
•	Æthelstan (Alfred’s grandson) helped the West Saxons reconquer territories in Danelaw and then whole England &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Settlements of Danes and Anglo-Saxons = relative proximity, similar ways of life&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Eventual renewed attacks by the Danes =&amp;gt; establishment of Danish king over all England: Sweyn Forkbeard &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Æthelstan put into exile&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- His son Cnut (= king of Denmark and Norway) ended Danish raids, though not Danish claims to the throne&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Official language at court: English, x Danish&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Anna.Hupcejova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
</feed>