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	<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&amp;feedformat=atom&amp;user=Jan.Zikmund</id>
	<title>Wikisofia - Příspěvky uživatele [cs]</title>
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	<updated>2026-05-14T19:58:50Z</updated>
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	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Sound_Change&amp;diff=19338</id>
		<title>Sound Change</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Sound_Change&amp;diff=19338"/>
		<updated>2015-04-29T13:12:02Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jan.Zikmund: Vysvětlení pojmů u otázky č.5.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''1. Explain the so‐called regularity principle (“Neogrammarian hypothesis”).  '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-the Neogrammarians (beginning in about 1876, Germany)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- a group of younger scholars who antagonised the leaders of the field at that time by attacking older thinking and loudly proclaiming their own views  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the early Neogrammarians included Karl Brugmann, Berthold Delbriick, August Leskien, Hermann Osthoff, Hermann Paul etc.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-their slogan: sound laws suffer no exceptions → the assumption that sound chage is regular = the change takes place whenever the sound or sounds which undergo the change are found in the circumstances or environments that condition the change   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. In Spanish, p-&amp;gt;b when intervocalic (no exceptions - sound change is not arbitrary)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the regular sound changes are of high significance in historical linguistics - they are extremely important to the methods and theories about language change&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''2. Explain the difference between the following sound changes:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Sporadic / Regular'''''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Sporadic = affects only a few words, not the entire language; the change is unpredictable. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. OE spræc =&amp;gt; PDE speech. Loss of r is not general – spring, spree etc. retain it&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Regular = apply throughout language; are predictable&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. In Spanish, p changes into b when intervocalic&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Conditioned/Unconditioned'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conditioned sound change = dependent on certain contexts and affects only some of the sound’s occurrences. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. In Spanish, p changes into b when intervocalic&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Unconditioned sound change = occurs generally and is not dependent on the phonetic context or restricted by neighbouring sounds&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. P at the beginning of words = p.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Phonemic/phonological and Non‐phonemic/phonetic'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Non-phonemic (allophonic change) do not alter the total number of phonemes in the language =&amp;gt; non-phonemic shift = change in pronunciation (phonetic level), but no changes in phonemic level.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Phonemic = change the structural organization of the inventory of sounds – adds/deletes phonemes/basic sounds in the langauge&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''4. Explain the following concepts:'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Assimilation'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- one sound becomes more similar to another --&amp;gt; the influence of a neighbouring, usually adjacent, sound&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- dichotomies: total-partial, contact-distant, regressive-progressive&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- total  - the soundbecomes identical to another by taking on all of its phonetic features&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- partial - the assimilating sound acquires some traits of another, but does not become fully identical to it&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-regressive - the sound that undergoes the change comes earlier in the word (more to the left) than the sound which causes or conditions the assimilation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- progressive/anticipatory - affects the sounds which come later in the word than the conditioning environment&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
contact - the sounds are immediately adjacent&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
distant - non-adjacent&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
a) total contact regressive assimilation: Latin octo &amp;gt; Italian otto (eight), noctem &amp;gt; notte (night)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
b) total contact progressive assimilation: PIE *kolnis &amp;gt; Latin collis (hill); PG *hulnis &amp;gt; OE hyll &amp;gt; ModE hill; OE myln &amp;gt; ModE mill&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
c) partial contact regressive assimilation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
d) partial contact progressive assimilation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
e) distant assimilation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Chain shift'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- interconnected changes with far-reaching impact on the overall phonological system of the language&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- often attributed to notions such as &amp;quot;symmetry in phonemic inventories&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;naturalness&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;markedness&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;maximum differentiation&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;a tendency for holes in phonological patterns to be filled&amp;quot;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the general idea: sound systems tend to be symmetrical or natural, and those that are not (with gaps in the inventory(, tend to change to make them symmetrical or natural (to fill the gap) --&amp;gt; a change which fills one gap may create other gaps elsewhere in the system -&amp;gt; other changes towards symmetry&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- 2 types: pull chains x push chains&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- a pull chain: one change may create a hole in the phonemic pattern which is followed by another change which fills the hole by &amp;quot;pulling&amp;quot; some sounds from somewhere else in the system and changing that sound to fit the needs of symmetry --&amp;gt; the sound which shifted to fill the original hole in the patterns leaves a new hole elsewhere in the pattern --&amp;gt; some other change may &amp;quot;pull&amp;quot; some other sounds to fill that gap&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- a push chain: notion that languages (or their speakers) want to maintain difference between sounds in the system in order to facilitate understanding, the processing of what is heard. A sound starts changing by moving into the articulatory space of another sounds --&amp;gt; change where the sound moves away from the encroaching one in order to maintain distinctions important to meaning --&amp;gt; if the sound is pushed towards articulatory space of some other sound, then it may shift to avoid the encroachment&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Apocope (tata &amp;gt; tat)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- loss of a sound, usually a vowel, at the end of a word&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- OE vs PDE nouns sticca&amp;gt; stick, sunu &amp;gt; son, mona &amp;gt; moon&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Syncope (atata &amp;gt; atta)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the loss of a vowel from interior of a word&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- in many varieties of English = fam(i)ly, mem(o)ry&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Vulgar Latin &amp;gt; Western Romance languages = the unstressed vowels other than a lost in the interior of words three syllables long or longer (pópulu &amp;gt; poplV-, French peuple, English people)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''' 5. Explain the following concepts: monophthongisation and diphthongisation; compensatory lengthening; metathesis; breaking. '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Diphthongisation'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- a change in which an original single vowel changes into a sequence of two vowel segments which together occupy the nucleus of a single syllable&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- examples from English: /mis/ &amp;gt; /mais/ 'mice', /mus/ &amp;gt; /maus/ 'mouse'. We see that the original long high vowels /i/ and /u/ became /ai/ and /au/ respectively.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Monophthongisation'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the opposite of diphthongisation: a former diphthong changes into a single vowel &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- an example from Spanish: tauru &amp;gt; toro 'bull'  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Compensatory lengthening'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- one segment is lost and another one (usually a vowel) is lengthened in order to compensate for the loss&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- in the history of English, a nasal was lost before a fricative and the vowel was subsequently lenghtened&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- ex. Proto-Germanic to English: gans &amp;gt; gos (&amp;gt; Modern English /gus/) 'goose' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Metathesis'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- it is the transposition of sounds; sounds exchange positions within a word&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- although most instances of metathesis are sporadic changes, metathesis can also be a regular change&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- examples from English: OE brid &amp;gt; PDE bird, OE hros &amp;gt; PDE horse &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Breaking'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- diphthongisation of a short vowel in particular contexts&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- a term used mainly in Germanic languages, for example in discusssion of the history of English&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- OE underwent the breaking of i &amp;gt; io, e &amp;gt; eo and a &amp;gt;ea before l or r followed by a consonant, or before h &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- examples: kald &amp;gt;ceald 'cold', nach &amp;gt; neah 'near' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''6. Explain the following concepts: palatalisation, gemination; allophonic change; relative chronology.'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Palatalisation '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-  can effect both vowels and consonants&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- vowels: '''back '''vowel is '''fronted '''or '''front '''vowel is '''raised'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- consonants: can change place or manner of articulation:  (for example: velar ---palatal/ alveolar, alveolar ---- postalveolar)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- is usually '''conditioned '''and '''anticipatory -''' conditioned by front vowels (primarily 'i') or semivowel 'j'&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- uncontitioned patalisation can also occur, but is not so common&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Example: umlaut&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Gemination'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- doubling of consonants - any change that produces two identical consonants from a single starting one&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- in English double consonants are not distinguished phonologically, mainly a feature of spelling&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- examples found in Finnish dialects&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Allophonic change'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- mentioned above under '''non-phonemic change'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Relative chronology'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- sound changes are distinctive to a particular period of time&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- they are not all active at once - one change occurs, ceases, another can occur, sometimes conditioned by the first&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- we can usually determine in what order did the changes happen = determine their '''relative chronology'''&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jan.Zikmund</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Sound_Change&amp;diff=19312</id>
		<title>Sound Change</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Sound_Change&amp;diff=19312"/>
		<updated>2015-04-29T09:10:52Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jan.Zikmund: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''1. Explain the so‐called regularity principle (“Neogrammarian hypothesis”).  '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-the Neogrammarians (beginning in about 1876, Germany)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- a group of younger scholars who antagonised the leaders of the field at that time by attacking older thinking and loudly proclaiming their own views  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the early Neogrammarians included Karl Brugmann, Berthold Delbriick, August Leskien, Hermann Osthoff, Hermann Paul etc.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-their slogan: sound laws suffer no exceptions → the assumption that sound chage is regular = the change takes place whenever the sound or sounds which undergo the change are found in the circumstances or environments that condition the change   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. In Spanish, p-&amp;gt;b when intervocalic (no exceptions - sound change is not arbitrary)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the regular sound changes are of high significance in historical linguistics - they are extremely important to the methods and theories about language change&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''2. Explain the difference between the following sound changes:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Sporadic / Regular'''''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Sporadic = affects only a few words, not the entire language; the change is unpredictable. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. OE spræc =&amp;gt; PDE speech. Loss of r is not general – spring, spree etc. retain it&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Regular = apply throughout language; are predictable&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. In Spanish, p changes into b when intervocalic&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Conditioned/Unconditioned'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conditioned sound change = dependent on certain contexts and affects only some of the sound’s occurrences. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. In Spanish, p changes into b when intervocalic&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Unconditioned sound change = occurs generally and is not dependent on the phonetic context or restricted by neighbouring sounds&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. P at the beginning of words = p.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Phonemic/phonological and Non‐phonemic/phonetic'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Non-phonemic (allophonic change) do not alter the total number of phonemes in the language =&amp;gt; non-phonemic shift = change in pronunciation (phonetic level), but no changes in phonemic level.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Phonemic = change the structural organization of the inventory of sounds – adds/deletes phonemes/basic sounds in the langauge&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''4. Explain the following concepts:'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Assimilation'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- one sound becomes more similar to another --&amp;gt; the influence of a neighbouring, usually adjacent, sound&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- dichotomies: total-partial, contact-distant, regressive-progressive&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- total  - the soundbecomes identical to another by taking on all of its phonetic features&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- partial - the assimilating sound acquires some traits of another, but does not become fully identical to it&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-regressive - the sound that undergoes the change comes earlier in the word (more to the left) than the sound which causes or conditions the assimilation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- progressive - affects the sounds which come later in the word than the conditioning environment&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
contact - the sounds are immediately adjacent&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
distant - non-adjacent&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
a) total contact regressive assimilation: Latin octo &amp;gt; Italian otto (eight), noctem &amp;gt; notte (night)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
b) total contact progressive assimilation: PIE *kolnis &amp;gt; Latin collis (hill); PG *hulnis &amp;gt; OE hyll &amp;gt; ModE hill; OE myln &amp;gt; ModE mill&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
c) partial contact regressive assimilation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
d) partial contact progressive assimilation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
e) distant assimilation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Chain shift'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- interconnected changes with far-reaching impact on the overall phonological system of the language&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- often attributed to notions such as &amp;quot;symmetry in phonemic inventories&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;naturalness&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;markedness&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;maximum differentiation&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;a tendency for holes in phonological patterns to be filled&amp;quot;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the general idea: sound systems tend to be symmetrical or natural, and those that are not (with gaps in the inventory(, tend to change to make them symmetrical or natural (to fill the gap) --&amp;gt; a change which fills one gap may create other gaps elsewhere in the system -&amp;gt; other changes towards symmetry&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- 2 types: pull chains x push chains&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- a pull chain: one change may create a hole in the phonemic pattern which is followed by another change which fills the hole by &amp;quot;pulling&amp;quot; some sounds from somewhere else in the system and changing that sound to fit the needs of symmetry --&amp;gt; the sound which shifted to fill the original hole in the patterns leaves a new hole elsewhere in the pattern --&amp;gt; some other change may &amp;quot;pull&amp;quot; some other sounds to fill that gap&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- a push chain: notion that languages (or their speakers) want to maintain difference between sounds in the system in order to facilitate understanding, the processing of what is heard. A sound starts changing by moving into the articulatory space of another sounds --&amp;gt; change where the sound moves away from the encroaching one in order to maintain distinctions important to meaning --&amp;gt; if the sound is pushed towards articulatory space of some other sound, then it may shift to avoid the encroachment&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Apocope (tata &amp;gt; tat)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- loss of a sound, usually a vowel, at the end of a word&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- OE vs PDE nouns sticca&amp;gt; stick, sunu &amp;gt; son, mona &amp;gt; moon&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Syncope (atata &amp;gt; atta)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the loss of a vowel from interior of a word&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- in many varieties of English = fam(i)ly, mem(o)ry&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Vulgar Latin &amp;gt; Western Romance languages = the unstressed vowels other than a lost in the interior of words three syllables long or longer (pópulu &amp;gt; poplV-, French peuple, English people)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''' 5. Explain the following concepts: monophthongisation and diphthongisation; compensatory lengthening; metathesis; breaking. '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Diphthongisation'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- a change in which an original single vowel changes into a sequence of two vowel segments which together occupy the nucleus of a single syllable&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- examples from English: /mis/ &amp;gt; /mais/ 'mice', /mus/ &amp;gt; /maus/ 'mouse'. We see that the original long high vowels /i/ and /u/ became /ai/ and /au/ respectively.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Monophthongisation'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the opposite of diphthongisation: a former diphthong changes into a single vowel &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- an example from Spanish: tauru &amp;gt; toro 'bull'  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Compensatory lengthening'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Metathesis'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Breaking'''&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jan.Zikmund</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Sound_Change&amp;diff=19311</id>
		<title>Sound Change</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Sound_Change&amp;diff=19311"/>
		<updated>2015-04-29T09:09:11Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jan.Zikmund: Vysvětlení pojmů diphthongisation a monophthongisation.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''1. Explain the so‐called regularity principle (“Neogrammarian hypothesis”).  '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-the Neogrammarians (beginning in about 1876, Germany)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- a group of younger scholars who antagonised the leaders of the field at that time by attacking older thinking and loudly proclaiming their own views  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the early Neogrammarians included Karl Brugmann, Berthold Delbriick, August Leskien, Hermann Osthoff, Hermann Paul etc.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-their slogan: sound laws suffer no exceptions → the assumption that sound chage is regular = the change takes place whenever the sound or sounds which undergo the change are found in the circumstances or environments that condition the change   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. In Spanish, p-&amp;gt;b when intervocalic (no exceptions - sound change is not arbitrary)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the regular sound changes are of high significance in historical linguistics - they are extremely important to the methods and theories about language change&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''2. Explain the difference between the following sound changes:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Sporadic / Regular'''''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Sporadic = affects only a few words, not the entire language; the change is unpredictable. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. OE spræc =&amp;gt; PDE speech. Loss of r is not general – spring, spree etc. retain it&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Regular = apply throughout language; are predictable&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. In Spanish, p changes into b when intervocalic&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Conditioned/Unconditioned'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conditioned sound change = dependent on certain contexts and affects only some of the sound’s occurrences. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. In Spanish, p changes into b when intervocalic&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Unconditioned sound change = occurs generally and is not dependent on the phonetic context or restricted by neighbouring sounds&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ex. P at the beginning of words = p.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Phonemic/phonological and Non‐phonemic/phonetic'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Non-phonemic (allophonic change) do not alter the total number of phonemes in the language =&amp;gt; non-phonemic shift = change in pronunciation (phonetic level), but no changes in phonemic level.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Phonemic = change the structural organization of the inventory of sounds – adds/deletes phonemes/basic sounds in the langauge&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''4. Explain the following concepts:'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Assimilation'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- one sound becomes more similar to another --&amp;gt; the influence of a neighbouring, usually adjacent, sound&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- dichotomies: total-partial, contact-distant, regressive-progressive&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- total  - the soundbecomes identical to another by taking on all of its phonetic features&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- partial - the assimilating sound acquires some traits of another, but does not become fully identical to it&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-regressive - the sound that undergoes the change comes earlier in the word (more to the left) than the sound which causes or conditions the assimilation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- progressive - affects the sounds which come later in the word than the conditioning environment&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
contact - the sounds are immediately adjacent&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
distant - non-adjacent&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
a) total contact regressive assimilation: Latin octo &amp;gt; Italian otto (eight), noctem &amp;gt; notte (night)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
b) total contact progressive assimilation: PIE *kolnis &amp;gt; Latin collis (hill); PG *hulnis &amp;gt; OE hyll &amp;gt; ModE hill; OE myln &amp;gt; ModE mill&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
c) partial contact regressive assimilation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
d) partial contact progressive assimilation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
e) distant assimilation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Chain shift'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- interconnected changes with far-reaching impact on the overall phonological system of the language&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- often attributed to notions such as &amp;quot;symmetry in phonemic inventories&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;naturalness&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;markedness&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;maximum differentiation&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;a tendency for holes in phonological patterns to be filled&amp;quot;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the general idea: sound systems tend to be symmetrical or natural, and those that are not (with gaps in the inventory(, tend to change to make them symmetrical or natural (to fill the gap) --&amp;gt; a change which fills one gap may create other gaps elsewhere in the system -&amp;gt; other changes towards symmetry&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- 2 types: pull chains x push chains&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- a pull chain: one change may create a hole in the phonemic pattern which is followed by another change which fills the hole by &amp;quot;pulling&amp;quot; some sounds from somewhere else in the system and changing that sound to fit the needs of symmetry --&amp;gt; the sound which shifted to fill the original hole in the patterns leaves a new hole elsewhere in the pattern --&amp;gt; some other change may &amp;quot;pull&amp;quot; some other sounds to fill that gap&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- a push chain: notion that languages (or their speakers) want to maintain difference between sounds in the system in order to facilitate understanding, the processing of what is heard. A sound starts changing by moving into the articulatory space of another sounds --&amp;gt; change where the sound moves away from the encroaching one in order to maintain distinctions important to meaning --&amp;gt; if the sound is pushed towards articulatory space of some other sound, then it may shift to avoid the encroachment&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Apocope (tata &amp;gt; tat)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- loss of a sound, usually a vowel, at the end of a word&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- OE vs PDE nouns sticca&amp;gt; stick, sunu &amp;gt; son, mona &amp;gt; moon&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Syncope (atata &amp;gt; atta)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the loss of a vowel from interior of a word&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- in many varieties of English = fam(i)ly, mem(o)ry&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Vulgar Latin &amp;gt; Western Romance languages = the unstressed vowels other than a lost in the interior of words three syllables long or longer (pópulu &amp;gt; poplV-, French peuple, English people)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''' 5. Explain the following concepts: monophthongisation and diphthongisation; compensatory lengthening; metathesis; breaking. '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Diphthongisation'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- change in which an original single vowel changes into a sequence of two vowel segments which together occupy the nucleus of a single syllable&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- examples from English: /mis/ &amp;gt; /mais/ 'mice', /mus/ &amp;gt; /maus/ 'mouse'. We see that the original long high vowels /i/ and /u/ became /ai/ and /au/ respectively.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Monophthongisation'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the opposite of diphthongisation: a former diphthong changes into a single vowel. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- an example from Spanish: tauru &amp;gt; toro 'bull'  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Compensatory lengthening'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Metathesis'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Breaking'''&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jan.Zikmund</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_The_Viking_invasions_and_their_consequences&amp;diff=8177</id>
		<title>Old English: The Viking invasions and their consequences</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_The_Viking_invasions_and_their_consequences&amp;diff=8177"/>
		<updated>2014-11-13T13:20:08Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jan.Zikmund: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''1.	Characterize the nature of Viking raids and Viking settlement in England.'''&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, p. 46-52&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Viking raids (787+)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Reasons for the Vikings leaving their home:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- over-population&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- too few natural resources&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- primogeniture system&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Nature of the raids = similar like the Anglo-Saxons'&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- pillaging and burning of the coast + returning home with gold, silver, slaves etc.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Monasteries sacked and manuscripts destroyed in Lindisfarne, Jarrow and Iona (793-795)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Viking settlement (850+)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Less raids, more settling - Danish Vikings in large parts of North and East England, Norwegian Vikings in Western Scotland + parts of Ireland =&amp;gt; farms established =&amp;gt; territorial conflict between inhabitants + newcomers, BUT no forced removal of Celts as the Anglo-Saxons have done&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	West Saxon kings undertook defense against the Danes, ex. Æthelwulf (recorded as a descendant of Seth, the son of biblical Adam) in 854 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Æthelwulf’s son Alfred the Great of Wessex (initiator of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'') stopped the advance of Danish Vikings at battle of Edington in 878&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Peace under Treaty of Wedmore:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1)	Stable boundary set between kingdom of Wessex and Danelaw (Northumbria, East Mercia &amp;amp; East Anglia)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2)	The defeated Danish king of East Anglia Guthrum became Christian  (= step towards assimilation of Viking conquerors)&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
•	Æthelstan (Alfred’s grandson) helped the West Saxons reconquer territories in Danelaw and then in whole England &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Settlements of Danes and Anglo-Saxons = relative proximity, similar ways of life, bilingualism&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Eventual renewed attacks by the Danes =&amp;gt; establishment of Danish king over all England: Sweyn Forkbeard &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Æthelstan put into exile&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- His son Cnut (= king of Denmark and Norway) ended Danish raids, though not Danish claims to the throne&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Official language at court: English, x Danish&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Compare OE borrowings from Latin and ON. '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Latin borrowings = mainly religious (''bishop, Saturday etc'') &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Borrowings/loan words from ON  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	War + maritime: ''ransaka'' “ransack”, ''dreng ''“warrior”  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Legal + administration:'' laga'' “law”, ''hūsting'' “tribunal” &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Common verbs: ''get, want, call'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Bodily features: ''leg, freckles, skin'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Farm &amp;amp; animal terms:'' bull, egg, axletree'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Life: ''birth, slaughter, die'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Relations: ''sister, husband'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	BUT ex. ON ''taka'' “take” replaced OE ''niman'', but “nim” = “nimble” (= stealing in PDE) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Most loan words adopted in OE do not appear in writing until ME  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Reason: lack of a literary tradition in Danelaw&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''2.Characterize the Scandinavian element of English lexicon on phonological level.'''&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Gramley, Stephan. Tnhe History of English: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, p. 53-54.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Although the words in OE and ON were identical in many cases, the sound changes have led to distinctions: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
a.	Proto-Germanic /sk/ remained /sk/ in Norse, but became /ʃ/ in OE. Numerous words in ModE with the consonant cluster /sk/ come ultimately from ON: ''skirt ''(vs. native ''shirt''), ''shrub ''(vs. ''scrub''), ''scatter ''(vs. ''shatter''), but also ''skin'', ''sky'', ''skill''; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
b.	/g/ for /j/ as in ''give ''(OE ''giefan ''with in initial /j/) or ''egg ''(OE ''ey'');&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
c.	/k/ for OE /tʃ/ as in ''kid ''(OE ''cild'') or ''kirk ''(OE ''cirice'');&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
d.	Proto-Germanic /ai/ became /ei/ in Norse, but /o:/ in OE in the ModE pairs ''nay-no, hale-whole, raid-road'');&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
e.	Proto-Germanic /au/ remained ON /au/ but became OE /e:a/ as in ''lauss ''(&amp;gt; ModE ''loose'') vs. ''lēas ''(&amp;gt; ModE –less, e.g. ''hopeless''). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Less frequent pronunciation differences: loss of initial w- (cf. ''Ulf ''vs. ''Wulf'') or the so called metathesis (ON ''brenna ''vs. OE ''biernan ''“burn”). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''3. Summarize changes in the system of inflectional morphology (including the pronominal system) in this period.''' &lt;br /&gt;
# loss of grammatical gender; &lt;br /&gt;
# simplification of gender, number and case agreement in adjectives, qualifiers, quantifiers and demonstratives; &lt;br /&gt;
# the general loss od dative and genetive plural cases. &lt;br /&gt;
* introduction of '-es' ending in 3rd person sg, Present Tense &lt;br /&gt;
* 3rd person pl pronouns now begin with 'th-' &lt;br /&gt;
* feminine sg nominative: hēo &amp;gt; seō, where /s/ was later palatalized into /ʃ/ &lt;br /&gt;
'''4. Summarize the main syntactic changes during this period.'''&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, p. 56&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* Mainly relative pronouns/particles&lt;br /&gt;
** Ϸe (that/who) used in OE for all antecedents regardless of case and number &lt;br /&gt;
** ON contributed to the use of relative particle ''as ''that came from Norse ''som''&lt;br /&gt;
*** As in ''the man as came yesterday'' (more common in northern English dialects)&lt;br /&gt;
** Zero relative appears&lt;br /&gt;
*** As in ''the man [zero] I saw yesterday'' &lt;br /&gt;
*** Was probably used even before the Viking invasions, but even though it is a rare construction it appears both in English and Danish, which is interesting &lt;br /&gt;
**** The languages also share “preposition stranding” &lt;br /&gt;
***** A construction where the preposition can be moved away from the relative &lt;br /&gt;
***** E.g. ''a construction in which the relative is fronted'' X ''a'' ''construction which the relative is fronted in''  &lt;br /&gt;
* Verb phrase&lt;br /&gt;
In OE complex verb forms (such as the perfect, the progressive, the will-future, auxiliary do) were not common, but they are in ME &lt;br /&gt;
* It is debatable how much was their appearance in ME influenced by ON &lt;br /&gt;
* It might also be caused the disappearance of the West Saxon written standard under the Normans &lt;br /&gt;
* In either case it is also possible that it was influenced by the vernacular during the absence of a unified language form (whether in Danelaw or Norman England)&lt;br /&gt;
'''6.'''  '''Describe the main points of Alfred's cultural reform and its relation to the emerging standard form of English. Summarize the effects of monastic reform'''&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, p. 60-62.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* King Alfred stopped the cultural decline that was caused by the invasions of the Vikings&lt;br /&gt;
* Alfred instigated a literary revival: number of Latin books were translated into OE, most importantly ''Cura Pastoralis'' (&amp;quot;Pastoral Care&amp;quot;), which was a set of religious rules and guidelines for clergymen; by sending the translation to the 12 West Saxon dioceses he established common religious-intellectual ground in his lands&lt;br /&gt;
* Another essential work of King Alfred was the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ''(which was based on Bede´s ''Historia Ecclesiastica''); through the chronicle a first common historical tradition was initiated&lt;br /&gt;
* Alfred was clever to use the English translations, for the level of Latin was probably low and not many people would understand the Latin texts; thanks to the English texts the king had more influence&lt;br /&gt;
* As a result of Alfred´s literary revival, Wessex became the most dominant and prestigious part of England  &lt;br /&gt;
* Consequently, the West Saxon dialect soon became the basis of written OE even beyond the borders of Wessex&lt;br /&gt;
The Monastic reform: &lt;br /&gt;
* it happened in the 10th century thanks to Dunstan, Archbishop of Cantenbury; Aethelwold, bishop of Winchester; and Oswald, bishop of Worcester and Archbishop of York&lt;br /&gt;
* it provoked another literary and linguistic revival; as a result of the reform, a number of words was borrowed from Latin, most of them learned in nature: ''clustor'' &amp;quot;cloister&amp;quot;, ''istoria'' &amp;quot;history&amp;quot;, ''terminus'' &amp;quot;term&amp;quot;; but also words for flora and fauna including ''fig'' or ''tiger''&lt;br /&gt;
* about 450 Latin words can be found in OE writings (some before this period)&lt;br /&gt;
* During the monastic reform, Aelfric of Eynsham (c. 955-1010), who was one of Dunstan´s disciples, became an important writer; he produced not only religious writings but he also tried to revived Latin and he wrote ''Grammar'' (the first Latin grammar written in English), ''Glossary'' (a word-list) and ''Colloquy'' (a manual for students of Latin)&lt;br /&gt;
* The Codex Exoniensis, which was probably written by the first Bishop of Exeter, is one of the most substantial manuscripts of OE literature as it contains both religious and everyday texts including &amp;quot;The Wanderer&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;The Seafarer&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;Widsith&amp;quot; and also 95 riddles&lt;br /&gt;
.'''References: '''&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jan.Zikmund</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_The_Viking_invasions_and_their_consequences&amp;diff=8176</id>
		<title>Old English: The Viking invasions and their consequences</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_The_Viking_invasions_and_their_consequences&amp;diff=8176"/>
		<updated>2014-11-13T13:17:28Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jan.Zikmund: Editace bodu 6.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''1.	Characterize the nature of Viking raids and Viking settlement in England.'''&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, p. 46-52&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Viking raids (787+)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Reasons for the Vikings leaving their home:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- over-population&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- too few natural resources&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- primogeniture system&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Nature of the raids = similar like the Anglo-Saxons'&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- pillaging and burning of the coast + returning home with gold, silver, slaves etc.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Monasteries sacked and manuscripts destroyed in Lindisfarne, Jarrow and Iona (793-795)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Viking settlement (850+)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Less raids, more settling - Danish Vikings in large parts of North and East England, Norwegian Vikings in Western Scotland + parts of Ireland =&amp;gt; farms established =&amp;gt; territorial conflict between inhabitants + newcomers, BUT no forced removal of Celts as the Anglo-Saxons have done&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	West Saxon kings undertook defense against the Danes, ex. Æthelwulf (recorded as a descendant of Seth, the son of biblical Adam) in 854 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Æthelwulf’s son Alfred the Great of Wessex (initiator of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'') stopped the advance of Danish Vikings at battle of Edington in 878&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Peace under Treaty of Wedmore:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1)	Stable boundary set between kingdom of Wessex and Danelaw (Northumbria, East Mercia &amp;amp; East Anglia)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2)	The defeated Danish king of East Anglia Guthrum became Christian  (= step towards assimilation of Viking conquerors)&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
•	Æthelstan (Alfred’s grandson) helped the West Saxons reconquer territories in Danelaw and then in whole England &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Settlements of Danes and Anglo-Saxons = relative proximity, similar ways of life, bilingualism&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Eventual renewed attacks by the Danes =&amp;gt; establishment of Danish king over all England: Sweyn Forkbeard &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Æthelstan put into exile&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- His son Cnut (= king of Denmark and Norway) ended Danish raids, though not Danish claims to the throne&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Official language at court: English, x Danish&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Compare OE borrowings from Latin and ON. '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Latin borrowings = mainly religious (''bishop, Saturday etc'') &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Borrowings/loan words from ON  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	War + maritime: ''ransaka'' “ransack”, ''dreng ''“warrior”  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Legal + administration:'' laga'' “law”, ''hūsting'' “tribunal” &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Common verbs: ''get, want, call'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Bodily features: ''leg, freckles, skin'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Farm &amp;amp; animal terms:'' bull, egg, axletree'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Life: ''birth, slaughter, die'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Relations: ''sister, husband'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	BUT ex. ON ''taka'' “take” replaced OE ''niman'', but “nim” = “nimble” (= stealing in PDE) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Most loan words adopted in OE do not appear in writing until ME  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Reason: lack of a literary tradition in Danelaw&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''2.Characterize the Scandinavian element of English lexicon on phonological level.'''&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Gramley, Stephan. Tnhe History of English: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, p. 53-54.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Although the words in OE and ON were identical in many cases, the sound changes have led to distinctions: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
a.	Proto-Germanic /sk/ remained /sk/ in Norse, but became /ʃ/ in OE. Numerous words in ModE with the consonant cluster /sk/ come ultimately from ON: ''skirt ''(vs. native ''shirt''), ''shrub ''(vs. ''scrub''), ''scatter ''(vs. ''shatter''), but also ''skin'', ''sky'', ''skill''; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
b.	/g/ for /j/ as in ''give ''(OE ''giefan ''with in initial /j/) or ''egg ''(OE ''ey'');&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
c.	/k/ for OE /tʃ/ as in ''kid ''(OE ''cild'') or ''kirk ''(OE ''cirice'');&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
d.	Proto-Germanic /ai/ became /ei/ in Norse, but /o:/ in OE in the ModE pairs ''nay-no, hale-whole, raid-road'');&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
e.	Proto-Germanic /au/ remained ON /au/ but became OE /e:a/ as in ''lauss ''(&amp;gt; ModE ''loose'') vs. ''lēas ''(&amp;gt; ModE –less, e.g. ''hopeless''). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Less frequent pronunciation differences: loss of initial w- (cf. ''Ulf ''vs. ''Wulf'') or the so called metathesis (ON ''brenna ''vs. OE ''biernan ''“burn”). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''3. Summarize changes in the system of inflectional morphology (including the pronominal system) in this period.''' &lt;br /&gt;
# loss of grammatical gender; &lt;br /&gt;
# simplification of gender, number and case agreement in adjectives, qualifiers, quantifiers and demonstratives; &lt;br /&gt;
# the general loss od dative and genetive plural cases. &lt;br /&gt;
* introduction of '-es' ending in 3rd person sg, Present Tense &lt;br /&gt;
* 3rd person pl pronouns now begin with 'th-' &lt;br /&gt;
* feminine sg nominative: hēo &amp;gt; seō, where /s/ was later palatalized into /ʃ/ &lt;br /&gt;
'''4. Summarize the main syntactic changes during this period.'''&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, p. 56&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* Mainly relative pronouns/particles&lt;br /&gt;
** Ϸe (that/who) used in OE for all antecedents regardless of case and number &lt;br /&gt;
** ON contributed to the use of relative particle ''as ''that came from Norse ''som''&lt;br /&gt;
*** As in ''the man as came yesterday'' (more common in northern English dialects)&lt;br /&gt;
** Zero relative appears&lt;br /&gt;
*** As in ''the man [zero] I saw yesterday'' &lt;br /&gt;
*** Was probably used even before the Viking invasions, but even though it is a rare construction it appears both in English and Danish, which is interesting &lt;br /&gt;
**** The languages also share “preposition stranding” &lt;br /&gt;
***** A construction where the preposition can be moved away from the relative &lt;br /&gt;
***** E.g. ''a construction in which the relative is fronted'' X ''a'' ''construction which the relative is fronted in''  &lt;br /&gt;
* Verb phrase&lt;br /&gt;
In OE complex verb forms (such as the perfect, the progressive, the will-future, auxiliary do) were not common, but they are in ME &lt;br /&gt;
* It is debatable how much was their appearance in ME influenced by ON &lt;br /&gt;
* It might also be caused the disappearance of the West Saxon written standard under the Normans &lt;br /&gt;
* In either case it is also possible that it was influenced by the vernacular during the absence of a unified language form (whether in Danelaw or Norman England)&lt;br /&gt;
'''6.'''  '''Describe the main points of Alfred's cultural reform and its relation to the emerging standard form of English. Summarize the effects of monastic reform'''&lt;br /&gt;
* King Alfred stopped the cultural decline that was caused by the invasions of the Vikings&lt;br /&gt;
* Alfred instigated a literary revival: number of Latin books were translated into OE, most importantly ''Cura Pastoralis'' (&amp;quot;Pastoral Care&amp;quot;), which was a set of religious rules and guidelines for clergymen; by sending the translation to the 12 West Saxon dioceses he established common religious-intellectual ground in his lands&lt;br /&gt;
* Another essential work of King Alfred was the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ''(which was based on Bede´s ''Historia Ecclesiastica''); through the chronicle a first common historical tradition was initiated&lt;br /&gt;
* Alfred was clever to use the English translations, for the level of Latin was probably low and not many people would understand the Latin texts; thanks to the English texts the king had more influence&lt;br /&gt;
* As a result of Alfred´s literary revival, Wessex became the most dominant and prestigious part of England  &lt;br /&gt;
* Consequently, the West Saxon dialect soon became the basis of written OE even beyond the borders of Wessex&lt;br /&gt;
The Monastic reform: &lt;br /&gt;
* it happened in the 10th century thanks to Dunstan, Archbishop of Cantenbury; Aethelwold, bishop of Winchester; and Oswald, bishop of Worcester and Archbishop of York&lt;br /&gt;
* it provoked another literary and linguistic revival; as a result of the reform, a number of words was borrowed from Latin, most of them learned in nature: ''clustor'' &amp;quot;cloister&amp;quot;, ''istoria'' &amp;quot;history&amp;quot;, ''terminus'' &amp;quot;term&amp;quot;; but also words for flora and fauna including ''fig'' or ''tiger''&lt;br /&gt;
* about 450 Latin words can be found in OE writings (some before this period)&lt;br /&gt;
* During the monastic reform, Aelfric of Eynsham (c. 955-1010), who was one of Dunstan´s disciples, became an important writer; he produced not only religious writings but he also tried to revived Latin and he wrote ''Grammar'' (the first Latin grammar written in English), ''Glossary'' (a word-list) and ''Colloquy'' (a manual for students of Latin)&lt;br /&gt;
* The Codex Exoniensis, which was probably written by the first Bishop of Exeter, is one of the most substantial manuscripts of OE literature as it contains both religious and everyday texts including &amp;quot;The Wanderer&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;The Seafarer&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;Widsith&amp;quot; and also 95 riddles&lt;br /&gt;
.'''References: '''&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jan.Zikmund</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_The_Viking_invasions_and_their_consequences&amp;diff=8175</id>
		<title>Old English: The Viking invasions and their consequences</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_The_Viking_invasions_and_their_consequences&amp;diff=8175"/>
		<updated>2014-11-13T12:43:02Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jan.Zikmund: 6. Describe the main points of Alfred's cultural reform and its relation to the emerging standard form of English. Summarize the effects of monastic reform&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''1.	Characterize the nature of Viking raids and Viking settlement in England.'''&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, p. 46-52&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Viking raids (787+)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Reasons for the Vikings leaving their home:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- over-population&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- too few natural resources&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- primogeniture system&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Nature of the raids = similar like the Anglo-Saxons'&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- pillaging and burning of the coast + returning home with gold, silver, slaves etc.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Monasteries sacked and manuscripts destroyed in Lindisfarne, Jarrow and Iona (793-795)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Viking settlement (850+)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Less raids, more settling - Danish Vikings in large parts of North and East England, Norwegian Vikings in Western Scotland + parts of Ireland =&amp;gt; farms established =&amp;gt; territorial conflict between inhabitants + newcomers, BUT no forced removal of Celts as the Anglo-Saxons have done&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	West Saxon kings undertook defense against the Danes, ex. Æthelwulf (recorded as a descendant of Seth, the son of biblical Adam) in 854 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Æthelwulf’s son Alfred the Great of Wessex (initiator of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'') stopped the advance of Danish Vikings at battle of Edington in 878&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Peace under Treaty of Wedmore:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1)	Stable boundary set between kingdom of Wessex and Danelaw (Northumbria, East Mercia &amp;amp; East Anglia)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2)	The defeated Danish king of East Anglia Guthrum became Christian  (= step towards assimilation of Viking conquerors)&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
•	Æthelstan (Alfred’s grandson) helped the West Saxons reconquer territories in Danelaw and then in whole England &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Settlements of Danes and Anglo-Saxons = relative proximity, similar ways of life, bilingualism&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Eventual renewed attacks by the Danes =&amp;gt; establishment of Danish king over all England: Sweyn Forkbeard &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Æthelstan put into exile&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- His son Cnut (= king of Denmark and Norway) ended Danish raids, though not Danish claims to the throne&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Official language at court: English, x Danish&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Compare OE borrowings from Latin and ON. '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Latin borrowings = mainly religious (''bishop, Saturday etc'') &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Borrowings/loan words from ON  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	War + maritime: ''ransaka'' “ransack”, ''dreng ''“warrior”  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Legal + administration:'' laga'' “law”, ''hūsting'' “tribunal” &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Common verbs: ''get, want, call'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Bodily features: ''leg, freckles, skin'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Farm &amp;amp; animal terms:'' bull, egg, axletree'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Life: ''birth, slaughter, die'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Relations: ''sister, husband'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	BUT ex. ON ''taka'' “take” replaced OE ''niman'', but “nim” = “nimble” (= stealing in PDE) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Most loan words adopted in OE do not appear in writing until ME  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Reason: lack of a literary tradition in Danelaw&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''2.Characterize the Scandinavian element of English lexicon on phonological level.'''&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Gramley, Stephan. Tnhe History of English: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, p. 53-54.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Although the words in OE and ON were identical in many cases, the sound changes have led to distinctions: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
a.	Proto-Germanic /sk/ remained /sk/ in Norse, but became /ʃ/ in OE. Numerous words in ModE with the consonant cluster /sk/ come ultimately from ON: ''skirt ''(vs. native ''shirt''), ''shrub ''(vs. ''scrub''), ''scatter ''(vs. ''shatter''), but also ''skin'', ''sky'', ''skill''; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
b.	/g/ for /j/ as in ''give ''(OE ''giefan ''with in initial /j/) or ''egg ''(OE ''ey'');&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
c.	/k/ for OE /tʃ/ as in ''kid ''(OE ''cild'') or ''kirk ''(OE ''cirice'');&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
d.	Proto-Germanic /ai/ became /ei/ in Norse, but /o:/ in OE in the ModE pairs ''nay-no, hale-whole, raid-road'');&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
e.	Proto-Germanic /au/ remained ON /au/ but became OE /e:a/ as in ''lauss ''(&amp;gt; ModE ''loose'') vs. ''lēas ''(&amp;gt; ModE –less, e.g. ''hopeless''). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Less frequent pronunciation differences: loss of initial w- (cf. ''Ulf ''vs. ''Wulf'') or the so called metathesis (ON ''brenna ''vs. OE ''biernan ''“burn”). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''3. Summarize changes in the system of inflectional morphology (including the pronominal system) in this period.''' &lt;br /&gt;
# loss of grammatical gender; &lt;br /&gt;
# simplification of gender, number and case agreement in adjectives, qualifiers, quantifiers and demonstratives; &lt;br /&gt;
# the general loss od dative and genetive plural cases. &lt;br /&gt;
* introduction of '-es' ending in 3rd person sg, Present Tense &lt;br /&gt;
* 3rd person pl pronouns now begin with 'th-' &lt;br /&gt;
* feminine sg nominative: hēo &amp;gt; seō, where /s/ was later palatalized into /ʃ/ &lt;br /&gt;
'''4. Summarize the main syntactic changes during this period.'''&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, p. 56&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* Mainly relative pronouns/particles&lt;br /&gt;
** Ϸe (that/who) used in OE for all antecedents regardless of case and number &lt;br /&gt;
** ON contributed to the use of relative particle ''as ''that came from Norse ''som''&lt;br /&gt;
*** As in ''the man as came yesterday'' (more common in northern English dialects)&lt;br /&gt;
** Zero relative appears&lt;br /&gt;
*** As in ''the man [zero] I saw yesterday'' &lt;br /&gt;
*** Was probably used even before the Viking invasions, but even though it is a rare construction it appears both in English and Danish, which is interesting &lt;br /&gt;
**** The languages also share “preposition stranding” &lt;br /&gt;
***** A construction where the preposition can be moved away from the relative &lt;br /&gt;
***** E.g. ''a construction in which the relative is fronted'' X ''a'' ''construction which the relative is fronted in''  &lt;br /&gt;
* Verb phrase&lt;br /&gt;
In OE complex verb forms (such as the perfect, the progressive, the will-future, auxiliary do) were not common, but they are in ME &lt;br /&gt;
* It is debatable how much was their appearance in ME influenced by ON &lt;br /&gt;
* It might also be caused the disappearance of the West Saxon written standard under the Normans &lt;br /&gt;
* In either case it is also possible that it was influenced by the vernacular during the absence of a unified language form (whether in Danelaw or Norman England)&lt;br /&gt;
'''6.'''  '''Describe the main points of Alfred's cultural reform and its relation to the emerging standard form of English. Summarize the effects of monastic reform'''&lt;br /&gt;
* King Alfred stopped the cultural decline that was caused by the invasions of the Vikings&lt;br /&gt;
* Alfred instigated a literary revival: number of Latin books were translated into OE, most importantly ''Cura Pastoralis'' (&amp;quot;Pastoral Care&amp;quot;), which was a set of religious rules and guidelines for clergymen; by sending the translation to the 12 West Saxon dioceses he established common religious-intellectual ground in his lands&lt;br /&gt;
* Another essential work of King Alfred was the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle''; through the chronicle a first common historical tradition was initiated&lt;br /&gt;
* Alfred was clever to translate the works into English, for the level of Latin was probably low and not many people would understand the Latin texts; thanks to the English texts the king had more influence&lt;br /&gt;
* As a result of Alfred´s literary revival, Wessex became the most dominant part of England  &lt;br /&gt;
* Consequently, the West Saxon dialect soon became the basis of written OE even beyond the borders of Wessex&lt;br /&gt;
The Monastic reform: &lt;br /&gt;
* &lt;br /&gt;
'''References: '''&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jan.Zikmund</name></author>
		
	</entry>
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