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	<updated>2026-04-27T00:18:14Z</updated>
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	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_spread_of_English_since_the_late_16th_century&amp;diff=18705</id>
		<title>The spread of English since the late 16th century</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_spread_of_English_since_the_late_16th_century&amp;diff=18705"/>
		<updated>2015-04-07T19:18:44Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magdalena.Cislerova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;==5. Characterize the spread of English in North America and Australia with regard to the dialectal and social status of the immigrants.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;GRAMLEY, STEPHAN. ''The History of English: An Introduction''. New York: Routledge, 2012, p. 164-165.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;== &lt;br /&gt;
* turbulent situation in 17th century England – suppression of religious dissenters → emigration&lt;br /&gt;
** up to the Civil War: new middle class, better educated than average, familiar with the emerging standard&lt;br /&gt;
** with the outbreak of the Civil War: poorer, less well educated people, uprooted from rural life, became part of the urban proletarian class = less affected by the written standard, but giving up their regional varieties in favour of the new spoken urban varieties (esp. London, to become GenE)&lt;br /&gt;
* North America&lt;br /&gt;
** early settlers were the better-educated separatists and Puritans  that settled in New England, and the genteel classes that were to become planters of Virginia and the Carolinas&lt;br /&gt;
** new waves of immigrants: from London, the Home Counties, the North of England, Scotland, Ulster = largely speakers of non-standard general English&lt;br /&gt;
* Australia&lt;br /&gt;
** officers in charge of the administration – closer to StE&lt;br /&gt;
** transported prisoners – lower classes, non-standard English&lt;br /&gt;
* the contact between the various dialects, the different environment, and different native languages English came into contact with caused changes to the language → new local standards developed and spread across the territory (North America, Australia, ...)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magdalena.Cislerova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_spread_of_English_since_the_late_16th_century&amp;diff=18704</id>
		<title>The spread of English since the late 16th century</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_spread_of_English_since_the_late_16th_century&amp;diff=18704"/>
		<updated>2015-04-07T18:51:41Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magdalena.Cislerova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;==5. Characterize the spread of English in North America and Australia with regard to the dialectal and social status of the immigrants.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;GRAMLEY, STEPHAN. ''The History of English: An Introduction''. New York: Routledge, 2012, p. 164-165.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;== &lt;br /&gt;
* turbulent situation in 17th century England – suppression of religious dissenters → immigration&lt;br /&gt;
** up to the Civil War: new middle class, better educated than average, familiar with the emerging standard&lt;br /&gt;
** with the outbreak of the Civil War: poorer, less well educated people, uprooted from rural life, became part of the urban proletarian class = less affected by the written standard, but giving up their regional varieties in favour of the new spoken urban varieties (esp. London, to become GenE)&lt;br /&gt;
* North America&lt;br /&gt;
** early settlers were the better-educated separatists and Puritans  that settled in New England, and the genteel classes that were to become planters of Virginia and the Carolinas&lt;br /&gt;
** new waves of immigrants: from London, the Home Counties, the North of England, Scotland, Ulster = largely speakers of non-standard general English&lt;br /&gt;
* Australia&lt;br /&gt;
** officers in charge of the administration – closer to StE&lt;br /&gt;
** transported prisoners – lower classes, non-standard English&lt;br /&gt;
* the contact between the various dialects, the different environment, and different native languages English came into contact with caused changes to the language → new local standards developed and spread across the territory (North America, Australia, ...)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magdalena.Cislerova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_spread_of_English_since_the_late_16th_century&amp;diff=18703</id>
		<title>The spread of English since the late 16th century</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_spread_of_English_since_the_late_16th_century&amp;diff=18703"/>
		<updated>2015-04-07T18:50:03Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magdalena.Cislerova: Založena nová stránka s textem „==5. Characterize the spread of English in North America and Australia with regard to the dialectal and social status of the immigrants.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHA…“&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;==5. Characterize the spread of English in North America and Australia with regard to the dialectal and social status of the immigrants.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. ''The History of English: An Introduction''. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, p. 164-165.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;== &lt;br /&gt;
* turbulent situation in 17th century England – suppression of religious dissenters → immigration&lt;br /&gt;
** up to the Civil War: new middle class, better educated than average, familiar with the emerging standard&lt;br /&gt;
** with the outbreak of the Civil War: poorer, less well educated people, uprooted from rural life, became part of the urban proletarian class = less affected by the written standard, but giving up their regional varieties in favour of the new spoken urban varieties (esp. London, to become GenE)&lt;br /&gt;
* North America&lt;br /&gt;
** early settlers were the better-educated separatists and Puritans  that settled in New England, and the genteel classes that were to become planters of Virginia and the Carolinas&lt;br /&gt;
** new waves of immigrants: from London, the Home Counties, the North of England, Scotland, Ulster = largely speakers of non-standard general English&lt;br /&gt;
* Australia&lt;br /&gt;
** officers in charge of the administration – closer to StE&lt;br /&gt;
** transported prisoners – lower classes, non-standard English&lt;br /&gt;
* the contact between the various dialects, the different environment, and different native languages English came into contact with caused changes to the language → new local standards developed and spread across the territory (North America, Australia, ...)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magdalena.Cislerova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=6919</id>
		<title>Old English: Early Germanic Britain</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=6919"/>
		<updated>2014-10-20T19:32:01Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magdalena.Cislerova: /* Place-names (toponyms)[1]﻿ */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== Place-names (toponyms)&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* the first speakers of an Indo-European language - the Celts - settled in Britain around 2000 BCE, though more likely around 1000 BCE&lt;br /&gt;
* Celtic contributed little to English, its influence is most manifest in place-names&lt;br /&gt;
* two main sources of linguistic origins of place names (toponyms):&lt;br /&gt;
**prominent features of the landscape (a river, a hill, a flat-plain)&lt;br /&gt;
**name of the inhabitants of the area (whose place it is)&lt;br /&gt;
*two kinds of toponyms:&lt;br /&gt;
**source in one single language&lt;br /&gt;
***Purely Celtic names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Bernicia'', ''Devon'' = tribal names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Kent'' – “border”&lt;br /&gt;
****Kingdom of ''Deira'' &amp;lt; Celtic Deifr – “water”&lt;br /&gt;
****Rivers: ''Avon'' – “river”, ''Esk'' and ''Exe'' &amp;lt; isca – “water”, ''Ouse'' – “stream, ''Thames'' – “dark river” &amp;lt; ''tamesis'' – “darkness”&lt;br /&gt;
**hybrid forms&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Latin combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Lincoln'' – combines Celtic ''lindon'' (“pool”) with Latin ''colonia'' (“colony, settlement”) &lt;br /&gt;
****''Lancaster'' – combines the Celtic names for the River Lune (“pure” / “healthy”) with ''–caster'' (~ - ''caster, -chester'') derived from Latin ''castrum'' (“camp”, “settlement”)&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Germanic combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cornwall'' – ''cornovii'' (a Celtic tribe) + ''wealas'' (Germanic “foreigner, servant, slave”)&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cumberland'' – ''Cymry'' (Celtic “Welsh”) + ''land'' (Germanic “land”)&lt;br /&gt;
*reflect the distribution of the tribes – tell us who lived where and occupied the land long enough to impose their own place-names&lt;br /&gt;
**Celtic toponyms appear all around England, but more prominent toward the West and North – areas which remained Celtic-speaking longer&lt;br /&gt;
**West Germanic place – names found esp. in the South and Southeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ham'' – “homestead” (Birmingham)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-bury, -borough'' – “castle” (Marlborough, Salisbury)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ing(s)'' – “the people/family of” (Hastings, Worthing)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ton'' – “enclosure, village” (Northampton)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-field''  (Sheffield)&lt;br /&gt;
**North Germanic (Scandinavian) – found esp. in the North and Northeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-by'' – “farm”/”town” (Barmby)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-holm'' – “flat riverside, land, or island” (Downholme)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-thorp(e)'' – “village” (Nunthorpe) &lt;br /&gt;
***''-thwaite'' – “isolated parcel of land” (Langthwaite)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-toft'' – “homestead” (Langtoft)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Roman settlement &lt;br /&gt;
**Latin borrowings:&lt;br /&gt;
***''portus'' – “harbour” (Portsmouth)&lt;br /&gt;
***''strata'' – “street, road” (Stratford)&lt;br /&gt;
***''vicus'' – “farm”/”village” (Keswick)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Norman Conquest&lt;br /&gt;
**French&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaulieu'' – ''beau-'' (“beautiful”) + ''-lieu'' (“place”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaumont'' - ''-mont'' (“hill”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Enville'' - ''-ville'' (“village, farm, field”)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== References ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategorie: Anglistika-amerikanistika|*]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magdalena.Cislerova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=6879</id>
		<title>Old English: Early Germanic Britain</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=6879"/>
		<updated>2014-10-19T21:15:23Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magdalena.Cislerova: /* Place-names (toponyms)[1]﻿ */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== Place-names (toponyms)&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* the first speakers of an Indo-European language - the Celts - settled in Britain around 2000 BCE, though more likely around 1000 BCE&lt;br /&gt;
* Celtic contributed little to English, its influence is most manifest in place-names&lt;br /&gt;
* two main sources of linguistic origins of place names (toponyms):&lt;br /&gt;
**prominent features of the landscape (a river, a hill, a flat-plain)&lt;br /&gt;
**name of the inhabitants of the area (whose place it is)&lt;br /&gt;
**→information about the language used in the area can be deduced from place-names&lt;br /&gt;
*two kinds of toponyms:&lt;br /&gt;
**source in one single language&lt;br /&gt;
***Purely Celtic names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Bernicia'', ''Devon'' = tribal names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Kent'' – “border”&lt;br /&gt;
****Kingdom of ''Deira'' &amp;lt; Celtic Deifr – “water”&lt;br /&gt;
****Rivers: ''Avon'' – “river”, ''Esk'' and ''Exe'' &amp;lt; isca – “water”, ''Ouse'' – “stream, ''Thames'' – “dark river” &amp;lt; ''tamesis'' – “darkness”&lt;br /&gt;
**hybrid forms&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Latin combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Lincoln'' – combines Celtic ''lindon'' (“pool”) with Latin ''colonia'' (“colony, settlement”) &lt;br /&gt;
****''Lancaster'' – combines the Celtic names for the River Lune (“pure” / “healthy”) with ''–caster'' (~ - ''caster, -chester'') derived from Latin ''castrum'' (“camp”, “settlement”)&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Germanic combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cornwall'' – ''cornovii'' (a Celtic tribe) + ''wealas'' (Germanic “foreigner, servant, slave”)&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cumberland'' – ''Cymry'' (Celtic “Welsh”) + ''land'' (Germanic “land”)&lt;br /&gt;
*reflect the distribution of the tribes – tell us who lived where and occupied the land long enough to impose their own place-names&lt;br /&gt;
**Celtic toponyms appear all around England, but more prominent toward the West and North – areas which remained Celtic-speaking longer&lt;br /&gt;
**West Germanic place – names found esp. in the South and Southeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ham'' – “homestead” (Birmingham)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-bury, -borough'' – “castle” (Marlborough, Salisbury)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ing(s)'' – “the people/family of” (Hastings, Worthing)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ton'' – “enclosure, village” (Northampton)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-field''  (Sheffield)&lt;br /&gt;
**North Germanic (Scandinavian) – found esp. in the North and Northeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-by'' – “farm”/”town” (Barmby)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-holm'' – “flat riverside, land, or island” (Downholme)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-thorp(e)'' – “village” (Nunthorpe) &lt;br /&gt;
***''-thwaite'' – “isolated parcel of land” (Langthwaite)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-toft'' – “homestead” (Langtoft)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Roman settlement &lt;br /&gt;
**Latin borrowings:&lt;br /&gt;
***''portus'' – “harbour” (Portsmouth)&lt;br /&gt;
***''strata'' – “street, road” (Stratford)&lt;br /&gt;
***''vicus'' – “farm”/”village” (Keswick)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Norman Conquest&lt;br /&gt;
**French&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaulieu'' – ''beau-'' (“beautiful”) + ''-lieu'' (“place”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaumont'' - ''-mont'' (“hill”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Enville'' - ''-ville'' (“village, farm, field”)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== References ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategorie: Anglistika-amerikanistika|*]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magdalena.Cislerova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=6856</id>
		<title>Old English: Early Germanic Britain</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=6856"/>
		<updated>2014-10-19T14:07:01Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magdalena.Cislerova: /* Place-names (toponyms)[1]﻿ */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== Place-names (toponyms)&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* the first speakers of an Indo-European language - the Celts - settled in Britain around 2000 BCE, though more likely around 1000 BCE&lt;br /&gt;
* Celtic contributed little to English, its influence is most manifest in place-names&lt;br /&gt;
* two main sources of linguistic origins of place names (toponyms):&lt;br /&gt;
**prominent features of the landscape (a river, a hill, a flat-plain)&lt;br /&gt;
**name of the inhabitants of the area (whose place it is)&lt;br /&gt;
**→information about the language used in the area can be deduced from place-names&lt;br /&gt;
*two kinds of toponyms:&lt;br /&gt;
**source in one single language&lt;br /&gt;
***Purely Celtic names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Bernica'', ''Devon'' = tribal names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Kent'' – “border”&lt;br /&gt;
****Kingdom of ''Deira'' &amp;lt; Celtic Deifr – “water”&lt;br /&gt;
****Rivers: ''Avon'' – “river”, ''Esk'' and ''Exe'' &amp;lt; isca – “water”, ''Ouse'' – “stream, ''Thames'' – “dark river” &amp;lt; ''tamesis'' – “darkness”&lt;br /&gt;
**hybrid forms&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Latin combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Lincoln'' – combines Celtic ''lindon'' (“pool”) with Latin ''colonia'' (“colony, settlement”) &lt;br /&gt;
****''Lancaster'' – combines the Celtic names for the River Lune (“pure” / “healthy”) with ''–caster'' (~ - ''caster, -chester'') derived from Latin ''castrum'' (“camp”, “settlement”)&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Germanic combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cornwall'' – ''cornovii'' (a Celtic tribe) + ''wealas'' (Germanic “foreigner, servant, slave”)&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cumberland'' – ''Cymry'' (Celtic “Welsh”) + ''land'' (Germanic “land”)&lt;br /&gt;
*reflect the distribution of the tribes – tell us who lived where and occupied the land long enough to impose their own place-names&lt;br /&gt;
**Celtic toponyms appear all around England, but more prominent toward the West and North – areas which remained Celtic-speaking longer&lt;br /&gt;
**West Germanic place – names found esp. in the South and Southeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ham'' – “homestead” (Birmingham)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-bury, -borough'' – “castle” (Marlborough, Salisbury)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ing(s)'' – “the people/family of” (Hastings, Worthing)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ton'' – “enclosure, village” (Northampton)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-field''  (Sheffield)&lt;br /&gt;
**North Germanic (Scandinavian) – found esp. in the North and Northeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-by'' – “farm”/”town” (Barmby)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-holm'' – “flat riverside, land, or island” (Downholme)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-thorp(e)'' – “village” (Nunthorpe) &lt;br /&gt;
***''-thwaite'' – “isolated parcel of land” (Langthwaite)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-toft'' – “homestead” (Langtoft)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Roman settlement &lt;br /&gt;
**Latin borrowings:&lt;br /&gt;
***''portus'' – “harbour” (Portsmouth)&lt;br /&gt;
***''strata'' – “street, road” (Stratford)&lt;br /&gt;
***''vicus'' – “farm”/”village” (Keswick)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Norman Conquest&lt;br /&gt;
**French&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaulieu'' – ''beau-'' (“beautiful”) + ''-lieu'' (“place”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaumont'' - ''-mont'' (“hill”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Enville'' - ''-ville'' (“village, farm, field”)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magdalena.Cislerova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=6855</id>
		<title>Old English: Early Germanic Britain</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=6855"/>
		<updated>2014-10-19T14:03:07Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magdalena.Cislerova: /* Place-names (toponyms)[1]﻿ */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== Place-names (toponyms)&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* the first speakers of an Indo-European language - the Celts - settled in Britain around 2000 BCE, though more likely around 1000 BCE&lt;br /&gt;
* Celtic contributed little to English, its influence is most manifest in place-names&lt;br /&gt;
* two main sources of linguistic origins of place names (toponyms):&lt;br /&gt;
**prominent features of the landscape (a river, a hill, a flat-plain)&lt;br /&gt;
**name of the inhabitants of the area (whose place it is)&lt;br /&gt;
**→information about the language used in the area can be deduced from place-names&lt;br /&gt;
*two kinds of toponyms:&lt;br /&gt;
**Source in one single language&lt;br /&gt;
***Purely Celtic names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Bernica'', ''Devon'' = tribal names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Kent'' – “border”&lt;br /&gt;
****Kingdom of ''Deira'' &amp;lt; Celtic Deifr – “water”&lt;br /&gt;
****Rivers: ''Avon'' – “river”, ''Esk'' and ''Exe'' &amp;lt; isca – “water”, ''Ouse'' – “stream, ''Thames'' – “dark river” &amp;lt; ''tamesis'' – “darkness”&lt;br /&gt;
**hybrid forms&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Latin combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Lincoln'' – combines Celtic ''lindon'' (“pool”) with Latin ''colonia'' (“colony, settlement”) &lt;br /&gt;
****''Lancaster'' – combines the Celtic names for the River Lune (“pure” / “healthy”) with ''–caster'' (~ - ''caster, -chester'') derived from Latin ''castrum'' (“camp”, “settlement”)&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Germanic combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cornwall'' – ''cornovii'' (a Celtic tribe) + ''wealas'' (Germanic “foreigner, servant, slave”)&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cumberland'' – ''Cymry'' (Celtic “Welsh”) + ''land'' (Germanic “land”)&lt;br /&gt;
*reflect the distribution of the tribes – tell us who lived where and occupied the land long enough to impose their own place-names&lt;br /&gt;
**Celtic toponyms appear all around England, but more prominent toward the West and North – areas which remained Celtic-speaking longer&lt;br /&gt;
**West Germanic place – names found esp. in the South and Southeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ham'' – “homestead” (Birmingham)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-bury, -borough'' – “castle” (Marlborough, Salisbury)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ing(s)'' – “the people/family of” (Hastings, Worthing)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ton'' – “enclosure, village” (Northampton)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-field''  (Sheffield)&lt;br /&gt;
**North Germanic (Scandinavian) – found esp. in the North and Northeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-by'' – “farm”/”town” (Barmby)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-holm'' – “flat riverside, land, or island” (Downholme)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-thorp(e)'' – “village” (Nunthorpe) &lt;br /&gt;
***''-thwaite'' – “isolated parcel of land” (Langthwaite)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-toft'' – “homestead” (Langtoft)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Roman settlement &lt;br /&gt;
**Latin borrowings:&lt;br /&gt;
***''portus'' – “harbour” (Portsmouth)&lt;br /&gt;
***''strata'' – “street, road” (Stratford)&lt;br /&gt;
***''vicus'' – “farm”/”village” (Keswick)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Norman Conquest&lt;br /&gt;
**French&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaulieu'' – ''beau-'' (“beautiful”) + ''-lieu'' (“place”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaumont'' - ''-mont'' (“hill”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Enville'' - ''-ville'' (“village, farm, field”)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magdalena.Cislerova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=6854</id>
		<title>Old English: Early Germanic Britain</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=6854"/>
		<updated>2014-10-19T14:01:10Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magdalena.Cislerova: Založena nová stránka s textem „  === Place-names (toponyms)&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ===  * the first sp…“&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
=== Place-names (toponyms)&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; === &lt;br /&gt;
* the first speakers of an Indo-European language - the Celts - settled in Britain around 2000 BCE, though more likely around 1000 BCE&lt;br /&gt;
* Celtic contributed little to English, its influence is most manifest in place-names&lt;br /&gt;
* two main sources of linguistic origins of place names (toponyms):&lt;br /&gt;
**prominent features of the landscape (a river, a hill, a flat-plain)&lt;br /&gt;
**name of the inhabitants of the area (whose place it is)&lt;br /&gt;
**→information about the language used in the area can be deduced from place-names&lt;br /&gt;
*two kinds of toponyms:&lt;br /&gt;
**Source in one single language&lt;br /&gt;
***Purely Celtic names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Bernica'', ''Devon'' = tribal names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Kent'' – “border”&lt;br /&gt;
****Kingdom of ''Deira'' &amp;lt; Celtic Deifr – “water”&lt;br /&gt;
****Rivers: ''Avon'' – “river”, ''Esk'' and ''Exe'' &amp;lt; isca – “water”, ''Ouse'' – “stream, ''Thames'' – “dark river” &amp;lt; ''tamesis'' – “darkness”&lt;br /&gt;
**hybrid forms&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Latin combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Lincoln'' – combines Celtic ''lindon'' (“pool”) with Latin ''colonia'' (“colony, settlement”) &lt;br /&gt;
****''Lancaster'' – combines the Celtic names for the River Lune (“pure” / “healthy”) with ''–caster'' (~ - ''caster, -chester'') derived from Latin ''castrum'' (“camp”, “settlement”)&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Germanic combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cornwall'' – ''cornovii'' (a Celtic tribe) + ''wealas'' (Germanic “foreigner, servant, slave”)&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cumberland'' – ''Cymry'' (Celtic “Welsh”) + ''land'' (Germanic “land”)&lt;br /&gt;
*reflect the distribution of the tribes – tell us who lived where and occupied the land long enough to impose their own place-names&lt;br /&gt;
**Celtic toponyms appear all around England, but more prominent toward the West and North – areas which remained Celtic-speaking longer&lt;br /&gt;
**West Germanic place – names found esp. in the South and Southeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ham'' – “homestead” (Birmingham)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-bury, -borough'' – “castle” (Marlborough, Salisbury)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ing(s)'' – “the people/family of” (Hastings, Worthing)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ton'' – “enclosure, village” (Northampton)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-field''  (Sheffield)&lt;br /&gt;
**North Germanic (Scandinavian) – found esp. in the North and Northeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-by'' – “farm”/”town” (Barmby)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-holm'' – “flat riverside, land, or island” (Downholme)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-thorp(e)'' – “village” (Nunthorpe) &lt;br /&gt;
***''-thwaite'' – “isolated parcel of land” (Langthwaite)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-toft'' – “homestead” (Langtoft)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Roman settlement &lt;br /&gt;
**Latin borrowings:&lt;br /&gt;
***''portus'' – “harbour” (Portsmouth)&lt;br /&gt;
***''strata'' – “street, road” (Stratford)&lt;br /&gt;
***''vicus'' – “farm”/”village” (Keswick)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Norman Conquest&lt;br /&gt;
**French&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaulieu'' – ''beau-'' (“beautiful”) + ''-lieu'' (“place”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaumont'' - ''-mont'' (“hill”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Enville'' - ''-ville'' (“village, farm, field”)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magdalena.Cislerova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
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