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Řádek 1: |
| − | * '''Language typology'''
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| − | *
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| − | * '''Language types''' – clusters of language properties
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| − | * Usually typology follows the co-occurrence of two properties
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| − | *
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| − | * The clusters of properties are hypothetical and extreme – in reality only stronger or weaker tensions of languages to the types
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| − | *
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| − | * '''1) The isolating type''' – strong differentiation of sentence and word, weak differentiation between word, morpheme and seme
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| − | * a)Absence of affixes, lexical and grammatical words are present
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| − | * b)Connection between lexical and grammatical morphemes is regular
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| − | * c)Phonemic / Semantic level of affixes – no affixes, semantic ambiguity of function words
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| − | * d)Numerous function words fixed word order
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| − | * e)Many kinds of dependent word clauses – with conjunctions
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| − | *
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| − | * '''2)The inflectional type '''– strong differentiation of seme and morpheme, Latin, most of the Slavonic languages – Czech, Slovak
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| − | * a)Different grammatical ending in each occurrence – inflection of nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, (numerals)
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| − | * b)Each ending expresses various functions of the word – word classes (noun X adjective), subclasses (gender X case)
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| − | * c)Endings also serve for derivations
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| − | * d)Radical difference between derivational and inflectional affixes
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| − | * e)Phonemic level – does not have to be a syllable of its own; Semantic level – one ending can express more functions and ambiguity is possible
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| − | * f)Free word order depending on the existence of congruence
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| − | * g)Word classes distinguished space for many dependent clauses
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| − | *
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| − | * '''3)The polysynthetic type''' – the strongest differentiation of word and seme, Vietnamese, Thai, Ewe, written Chinese
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| − | * a)Lexical and function words – lexical can be also used as grammatical
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| − | * b)No opposition between word classes
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| − | * c)Word formation by composition
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| − | * d)Phonemic / Semantic level – no affixes present, but ambiguity between lexical and grammatical words
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| − | * e)Grammatical fixed word order
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| − | * f)Dependent clauses are not present, realized by compositions
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| − | *
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| − | * '''4)The agglutinative type''' – combining more than one seme in a word– typical for Turkish, Hungarian, Finnish, Georgian, Basque
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| − | * a)Many affixes added to a word basis
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| − | * b)These affixes express e.g. person, possession, adverbial values corresponding to prepositions and to subordinating conjunctions
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| − | * c)All affixes attached to all word bases – no word classes; affixes also used in word formation
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| − | * d)Weakening of the opposition between derivational suffixes and inflectional endings
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| − | * e)Phonemic level of affixes – often a syllable of its own; Semantic level – no ambiguity
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| − | * f)No congruence – grammatically fixed word order
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| − | * g)No word classes No dependent clauses
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| − | *
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| − | * '''5) The introflexive type''' – Semitic languages (Arabic, Hebrew...) – always connected with syntax of another type
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| − | * a) Interruption of a morpheme with a certain meaning (foot - feet) + infixes
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| − | * b)Word classes distinguished by introflection
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| − | * c)Derivation also by introflection
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| − | * d)Phonemic level – lexical and grammatical means are phonemically distinguished
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| − | * e)Free word order depending on the existence of congruence (but not that developed)
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| − | * f)Word classes distinguished space for many dependent clauses (not that developed)
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| − | *
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| − | * '''Mutual favourability '''-
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| − | * the tendency of various properties of language types to occur together in a certain language
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| − | * e.g. grammatically fixed word order + paucity of inflectional affixes or alternations + abundance of function words in English; word classes division + congruence + free word order in Czech
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| − | * they can appear within one language type or across them
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| − | *
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| − | * '''Language construct'''
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| − | * an extreme hypothetical property in a language type, e.g. in the agglutinative type construct there would be only affixes, no derivations, no inflections
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| − | ==== Mutual Favourability of Fixed Word Order and Arcitles ====
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| − | * The '''Isolating''' (Analytical) type of language, i.e. English, has, as one of its defining properties, an abundance of function words
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| − | * This fact leads to no need for many word endings because many of functions which in other types of languages might require a large amount of word endings are dealt with via '''grammatically fixed word order'''
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| − | * The abundance of function words, including a substantial amount of monosyllabic ones, leads to a heavy '''dependance on vowels to distinguish the words'''.
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| − | * That leads to a '''large amount of simple naming units''' which leads to conversion or word classes being commonplace as well with the lexicon being only weakly organized by means such as affixation.
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| − | * Another feature is occurence of prepositional cases and embedded clauses.
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| − | * Ultimately, infinitives and possessive constructions exhibit prepositions and '''articles have the form of function words'''
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| − | ==== Inflection Suffices With a Single Ending X Agglutination Languages Require Several Affixes ====
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| − | * Agglutination grammatical '''affixes are not differentiated''' from the derivational ones
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| − | * Inflection languages have in their stem alterations implied '''accumulation of functions''' in their endings (which express case, number and gender or person, number, tense and mood)
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| − | * The accumulation of functions opens up possibilies for the '''inflection languages to convey the topic/focus articulation via word order as opposed to the agglutination languages'''
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| − | ===== How is this reflected on phonetic level? =====
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| − | * Agglutination languages produce much longer '''polysyllabic words''' and thus their '''reliance on vowels''' is '''lower''' which leads to possibility of '''vowel harmony'''
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| − | * Inflection languages are more reliant on vowels than agglutination languages.
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| − | ===== What is the typological relevance of grammatical gender? =====
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| − | * Genders are in agglutination languages absent as is congruence.
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| − | * Because of the functions of inflection languages' endings the adjectives, which have their endings as well, express congruence as well as gender.
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