2. Variation and change: profile and parameters

1. What are the usual directions of semantic change and why do you think that is the case?

semantic change = alteration in the lexical meaning of words and morphemes; it is the most susceptible to change because of the arbitrary connection between the signifier and the signified

directions of the semantic change usually come in pairs, one of them is usually more frequent

1. Generalization

widening in scope of a word's meaning - word denotes a greater variety of referrents
more frequent than specialization
examples: holiday - originally only religious significance, now a general break from work; business - originally the state of being busy

2. Specialization

narrowing of the meaning - lower number of referrents
sometimes occurs together with borrowing: a native word is specialized, the borrowing has a general meaning (lust vs. desire)
examples: meat - originally "food"

3. Pejoration

acquisition of a less favourable meaning
more frequent than amelioration
examples: "hussy" originally refered to a housewife; names of animals used as derogatory terms

4. Amelioration

acquisition of a more favourable meaning
examples: "nice" originally meant "silly, simple", "success" orginally "result"

5. Weakening

for topics that we find difificult to talk about (bodily functions, sex, death) - linguistic taboo - we use euphemisms
euphemisms are in continual need of renewal - it may come to be considered too strong after some time
examples: condition instead of disease (generalization), pass away (figure of speech), STD (acronyms), darn (phonetic distortion),...

6. Strengthening

hyperbole, common with intensifiers ("terribly sorry", "awfully good")
they undergo a continual process of weakening - must be replaced by stronger words

7. Figurative Shifts

transfer of meaning from one referrent to another
Metaphor: semantic change takes place when a metaphor dies (it is no longer perceived as a metaphor) - eye of a storm, mouth of a river, the days to come
Synecdoche: part for a whole - pretty faces (beautiful people), a rhyme (a poem)
Metonymy: contiguity of meaning - the White House (the president etc.)
Synesthesia: a word referring to one sense is transferred to another/to a non-sensual domain - a quiet colour